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Hypnosis
-Definition
Hypnosis is a natural
psychological process in which critical thinking faculties of the
mind are bypassed and a type of selective thinking and perception is
established. Although some individuals experience an increase in
suggestibility and subjective feelings of an "altered state of
consciousness", this is not true for everyone. In fact, some
supposed hypnotic indicators and subjective changes can be achieved
without relaxation or a lengthy induction by means of simple
suggestion or waking hypnosis, a fact that increases the controversy
and misunderstandings around hypnosis and the hypnotic state.
History
History of hypnosis
Theories of Hypnosis
Some theories of hypnosis attempt to describe hypnotic phenomena in
terms of brain activity while others concentrate more on the
phenomenological experience. In either case, a fundamental
distinction is between "state" and "non-state" theories of hypnosis.
State theorists believe that an altered state of consciousness is a
core part of hypnosis, whereas non-state theorists believe that more
mundane psychological processes such as focused attention and
expectation are sufficient to explain hypnotic phenomena. The
precise definition of what constitutes an altered state of
consciousness is a matter of some debate. Although many people who
are hypnotized describe their experience as "altered" it is
difficult to use these terms in the absence of a prior definition.
The American Psychological Association remains neutral in the
argument between 'state' and 'non-state' theorists. However, this
controversy may be decreasing as modern brain-imaging techniques
offer hope for an increased understanding of the nature of hypnosis,
and as the value of both perspectives is increasingly recognized.
The following theories have been presented
from highly regarded individuals/groups:
Alpha- and Theta-state theories
Through data collected by Electroencephalography (EEGs), four major
brain-wave patterns—frequency of electrical impulses firing from the
brain—have been identified. The Beta state (alert/working) is
defined as 14–32 cycles per second (CPS), the Alpha state
(relaxed/reflecting) as the 7–14 CPS, the Theta state (drowsy) as
4–7 CPS, and the Delta state (sleeping/dreaming/deep sleep) as
approximately 3–5 CPS.
One physiological definition of hypnosis states that the brainwave
level necessary to work on issues such as stopping smoking, weight
management, reduction of phobias, sports improvement, etc., is the
alpha state. The alpha state is commonly associated with closing
one's eyes, relaxation, and daydreaming.
Another physiological definition states that the theta state is
required for therapeutic change. The theta state is associated with
hypnosis for surgery, hypnoanesthesia and hypnoanalgesia, which
occur more readily in the theta and delta states. It should be noted
that hypnoanalgesia of the skin is a common test for somnambulism.
Arm and body catalepsy are one of a few tests done to determine
readiness for these surgical applications.
However, it is important to reflect upon the fact that both arm and
body catalepsy can be induced in normal non-hypnotized subjects.
Indeed, arm catalepsy is a standard stage-hypnotist's test of
susceptibility. Moreover, normal, non-hypnotized subjects can be
found in any of these states of cortical arousal without also
displaying any of the behavior, traits or the enhanced
suggestibility associated with being hypnotized. Reading, watching
movies, and meditating may be also forms of hypnosis.
Social constructionism /
Role-playing theory
This theory suggests that individuals are playing a role and
allowing the hypnotist to create a reality for them. This
relationship depends on how much rapport has been established
between the hypnotist and the subject (see Hawthorne effect,
Pygmalion effect, and the Placebo effect).
Generally, during the hypnotic process people become more receptive
to suggestion, causing changes in the way they feel, think, and
behave. Some psychologists such as Robert Baker claim that what we
call hypnosis is actually a form of learned social behavior, a
complex hybrid of social compliance, relaxation, and suggestibility
that can account for many esoteric behavioral manifestations.
Psychologists, such as Sarbin and Spanos, have suggested that strong
social expectations are played out by subjects, who believe they are
in a state of hypnosis, behaving in a way that they imagine a
hypnotized person would behave.
Nicholas Spanos states “hypnotic procedures influence behavior
indirectly by altering subjects’ motivations, expectations and
interpretations” and hypothesized that the behaviors associated with
hypnosis are acted out knowingly by the person. He alleged that
there are two reasons that cause people to misconstrue their state
of consciousness as hypnosis. One of the reasons being that people
believe that their behavior is caused by an external source instead
of the self. The second is related to the way hypnotic rituals are
performed. The hypnotist says certain things which are first
interpreted as voluntary and then later on in the procedure as
involuntary. An example being “relax the muscles in your legs” and
then later “your legs feel limp and heavy”.
Spanos’ findings were not to prove that the hypnotic state did not
exist at all but to prove that the behaviors exhibited by those
individuals are due to “highly motivated” individuals.
Much experimental work has demonstrated that the experiences of
hypnotized subjects can be dramatically shaped by expectations and
social nuances. This view is often misunderstood: it does not
discount the claim that hypnotized individuals are truly
experiencing suggested effects, just that the mechanism by which
this has taken place has in part been socially constructed and is
not necessarily reliant on the idea of an altered state of
consciousness.
Neuropsychological theory of
hypnosis
Neuropsychological theories of hypnosis attempt to explain hypnotic
phenomenon in terms of alterations in brain activity. Gruzelier,
based on large amounts of EEG research, proposed that hypnosis is
characterized by a shift in brain activity from anterior (front) to
posterior (back).
Hypnosis as a conditioned process leading
to sleep
Ivan Pavlov believed that hypnosis was a "partial sleep". He
observed that the various degrees of hypnosis did not significantly
differ physiologically from the waking state and hypnosis depended
on insignificant changes of environmental stimuli. Pavlov also
suggested that lower brain stem mechanisms were involved in hypnotic
conditioning.
Some modern well-known hypnotherapists subscribe to this theory,
since in hypnosis, the subject typically appears to be asleep
because of eye closure that is typically part of the induction
procedure. However, there is quite a bit of literature on blood
pressure, reflexes, physiochemical and EEG studies which indicates
that hypnosis more closely resembles complete wakefulness.
Hyper–suggestibility
theory
Currently a more popular theory, it states the subject focuses
attention by responding to the suggestion of the hypnotist. As
attention is focused and magnified, the hypnotist's words are
gradually accepted without the subject carrying any conscious
censorship of what is being said. This is not unlike the athlete
listening to the last pieces of advice from a coach minutes before
an important sport event: Concentration filters out anything that is
unimportant and magnifies what is said about what really matters for
the subject.
It would be a complete misinterpretation to conclude from this that
only gullible or weak-minded people are suggestible. Hypnotized
subjects will go along the suggestions of the hypnotist as long as
this does not violate their beliefs and will wake up otherwise.
Informational theory
This theory applies the concept of the brain-as-computer model. In
electronic systems, a system adjusts its feedback networks to
increase the signal-to-noise ratio for optimum functioning, called a
"steady state". Increasing the receptability of a receptor enables
messages to be more clearly received from a transmitter primarily by
trying to reduce the interference (noise) as much as possible. Thus,
the object of the hypnotist is to use techniques to reduce the
interference and increase the receptability of specific messages
(suggestions).
Systems
theory
This theory may be regarded as an extension of James Braid (physician)'s
original conceptualization of hypnosis as involving a process of
greatly enhancing or depressing the activity of the nervous system.
It takes as established the necessary organisation of the nervous
system into interacting subsystems. On that basis it develops a
picture of hypnotic phenomena as involving not only increasing or
decreasing of the activity of particular subsystems, but on their
interaction. As a result it brings into centre stage the phenomenon
of feed-back loops, familiar in systems theory, and thereby throws
light on a mechanism for creating the more extreme of hypnotic
phenomena. The theory is available in paper or online.
Research on hypnosis
There is a long tradition (over a century) of hypnosis research
which has allowed scientists to test key ideas in the debate. Much
research has been conducted into the nature and effects of hypnosis
and suggestion, and hypnosis continues to be a popular (if somewhat
peripheral) tool in contemporary psychological research. A number of
different strands of hypnosis research are apparent: that which
examines the "state" of hypnosis itself, that which examines the
effects and properties of suggestions in and out of hypnosis, and
that which uses hypnotic suggestion as a tool to research other
areas of psychological functioning.
Hypnosis has been shown to be an effective tool for pain relief, and
when combined adjunctively with other therapeutic techniques it has
been demonstrated to be a powerful tool (it is effective for weight
loss, IBS, anxiety conditions and many more).
Recently, there are reports that efforts to reduce obesity with
hypnosis (when used in combination with cognitive behavioral
therapy, exercise, and a low-fat diet) may be effective.
Clinical Studies
In 1996 National Institutes of Health technology assessment panel
judged hypnosis to be an effective intervention for alleviating pain
from cancer and other chronic conditions. A large amount of clinical
studies also indicate that hypnosis can reduce the acute pain
experienced by patients undergoing burn-wound debridement, enduring
bone marrow aspirations and childbirth. An analysis published in a
recent issue of the International Journal of Clinical and
Experimental Hypnosis, for example, found that hypnotic suggestions
relieved the pain of 75 percent of 933 subjects participating in 27
different experiments.
Brain Imaging
With the recent advent of new brain imaging techniques (chiefly MRI
scans, with EEG and PET contributing to a lesser extent) there has
been a resurgence of interest in the relationship between hypnosis
and brain function. Any human experience is reflected in some way in
the brain – seeing colors or motion is underscored by activity in
the visual cortex, feeling fear is mediated by activity in the
amygdala – and so hypnosis and suggestion are expected to have
observable effects upon brain function. An important issue for
researchers conducting brain imaging is to separate the effects of
hypnosis and suggestion — knowing that a suggestion given during
hypnosis affects brain area X does not just tell us about hypnosis,
it tells us about the effects of the suggestion too. To account for
this, experiments need to include a
non-hypnotic-response-to-suggestion condition —only this way can the
specific effects of hypnosis be examined.
A number of brain-imaging studies have been conducted on hypnotized
subjects. A selection of these studies are explained and summarized
below:
One controlled scientific experiment postulates that hypnosis may
alter our perception of conscious experience in a way not possible
when people are not "hypnotized", at least in "highly hypnotizable"
people. In this experiment, color perception was changed by hypnosis
in "highly hypnotizable" people as determined by positron emission
tomography (PET) scans (Kosslyn et al., 2000). (This research does
not compare the effects of hypnosis on less hypnotizable people and
could therefore show little causal effect due to the lack of a
control group.)
Another research example, employing event-related fMRI and EEG
coherence measures, compared certain specific neural activity
"...during Stroop task performance between participants of low and
high hypnotic susceptibility, at baseline and after hypnotic
induction". According to its authors, "the fMRI data revealed that
conflict-related ACC activity interacted with hypnosis and hypnotic
susceptibility, in that highly susceptible participants displayed
increased conflict-related neural activity in the hypnosis condition
compared to baseline, as well as with respect to subjects with low
susceptibility." (Egner et al., 2005).
Skeptics dispute the significance of such findings, claiming that
such changes cannot be shown to be particular to the hypnotized
state, and that any other action such as daydreaming is also likely
to alter brain activity in some manner. However, recent studies have
shown that hypnotized subjects suggested to experience auditory
hallucinations demonstrated via PET scans, regional blood flow in
the same areas of the brain as real hearing, whereas in subjects
merely engaged in vividly imagining hearing noises, this did not
occur. The subject is still a matter of current research and
scientific debate.
Hypnosis methodologies and effects
General methods
The act of inducing a hypnotic state is referred to as an induction
procedure. There is no current consensus on what the requirements
are for an induction procedure to be effective; while some
practitioners use simple calming verbal techniques, others use
complex triggers, including mechanical devices.
Many experienced hypnotists claim that they can hypnotize almost
anyone. They also claim it is a myth that people with strong will
power cannot be hypnotized, as they claim these generally make the
best participants. This is based on the idea that those who are most
intelligent are also the most creative and as such they will make
strong associations with the structure of language used by the
hypnotist and by the visual or auditory representations inside of
their mind. On the other hand, there is a common claim that no one
can really be hypnotized against his or her will. The counter-claim
given by many hypnotists is that while you cannot make someone do
anything against their will, you can change what it is that they
wish to do.
Many religious and cultural rituals contain many similarities with
techniques used for hypnotic induction and induce similar states in
their participants.
General
effects
Focused attention
This school of thought holds that hypnosis as a state is very
similar to other states of extreme concentration, where a person
becomes oblivious to his or her surroundings while lost in thought.
Often suggested as an example is when a driver suddenly finds his or
her self much further down the road without any memory of driving
the intervening distance (see highway hypnosis), when a person is
watching television and focuses so intently on the program that he
or she ceases to be aware of the sides of the screen, or when a
person is thinking about another subject while reading, then
realizes that he or she has read several pages without consciously
doing so, or taking in any of the content.
The act of hypnotizing, is, in effect, the act of deliberately and
mechanically inducing a similar state.
Suggestibility
Psychologists have produced controversial studies that seem to show
a strong correlation between the ease of putting someone in a state
of hypnosis and their level of suggestibility. Some of these studies
have produced the Harvard scale, Stanford scale, and eye-roll test;
all of which are supposed to predict how easily a person can be put
in a hypnotized state.
Hypnosis has further been described as "The suspension of the
critical factor" which expands on the idea of "increased
suggestibility". A person who claims to be hypnotized may accept
statements as true that he or she would normally reject.
For example, when told "you have forgotten your name", the subject
in a normal state would react with disbelief, but hypnotized
individuals have claimed that they have, indeed, forgotten their own
names.
It often appears as if the hypnotized participant accepts the
authority of the hypnotist over his or her own experience. When
asked after the conclusion of such a session, some participants
appear to be genuinely unable to recall the incident, while others
say that they had known the hypnotist was wrong but at the time it
had seemed easier just to go along with his instructions. (Richard
Feynman describes this in his memoir Surely You're Joking, Mr.
Feynman! as his own hypnotic experience.) The mechanism of this
effect is however disputed: Some hypnotists would claim that this
showed the difference between a deep and a shallow hypnotic trance,
while skeptics would question the validity of this conclusion,
citing that such effects can be duplicated in other circumstances
where an agent holds authority, such as the Milgram experiment, and
suggest that unreliability in results discredits a scientific theory
of hypnosis.
Clinical observations of various
depths of hypnosis
Bireuer's absent pupillary reflex sign
An objective sign of hypnosis can be observed by a pupillary reflex
test, which demonstrates a response that is opposed to the normal
physiological response. When subjects are in a profound hypnotic
state, they are asked to remain in hypnosis and open their eyes. The
subjects' pupils are usually dilated and remain dilated or react
poorly when a penlight is shone into them—the normal non-hypnotic
response is a contraction of the pupil.
The esoteric publication Hypnotism, by Danish hypnotist Carl Septus,
is an early reference work that notes the absent pupillary reflex
sign. More specifically, it states that after subjects have been
asked to open their eyes during a deep trance, light shone into the
eyes does not cause pupil contraction. The hypnotist may use
suggestion to keep the subject in hypnosis, but the hypnotist must
avoid suggestions relating to eyes, visual focus, light, and the
pupils' dilation or contraction.
Hypnosis
applications
Hypnotherapy is a term to describe the use of hypnosis in a
therapeutic context. Many hypnotherapists refer to their practice as
"clinical work". Hypnotherapy can either be used as an addition to
the work of licensed physicians or psychologists, or it can be used
in a stand-alone environment where the hypnotherapist in question
usually owns his or her own business. The majority of certified
hypnotherapists (C.Hts in the US, Diploma. Hyp in the UK) today earn
a large portion of their money through the cessation of smoking
(often in a single session) and the aid of weight loss (body
sculpting). There is no evidence that 'incurable' diseases are
curable with hypnosis (such as cancer, diabetes, and arthritis), but
pain and other body functions related to the diseases are
controllable. Some of the treatments practiced by hypnotherapists,
in particular so-called regression, have been viewed with
skepticism.
The American Medical Association and the American Psychological
Association have both cautioned against the use of repressed memory
therapy in dealing with cases of alleged childhood trauma, stating
that "it is impossible, without other corroborative evidence, to
distinguish a true memory from a false one", and so the procedure is
"fraught with problems of potential misapplication". (See also false
memory). This is why forensic hypnosis is not widely used in many
countries' legal systems.
Clinical Hypnosis
The American Society of Clinical Hypnosis is an organization that
"promotes greater acceptance of hypnosis as a clinical tool with
broad applications". Hypnosis is applied to a great range of both
physical and psychological ailments, rather than being restricted to
purely psychological phenomena. The society was founded by Milton
Erickson, a doctor who attempted to put hypnosis on a firm
therapeutic backing in the 1950s.
Milton H. Erickson was opposed to non-board-licensed health care
professionals performing therapeutic hypnotism, which has since
caused difficulty for certified laymen willing to practice. In the
United States, certified lay hypnotists are now said to perform
"non-therapeutic issue-resolution hypnotism", rather than
"hypnotherapy".
Milton Erickson's technique of hypnosis was later called the
Ericksonian technique.
Medical and
Dental application
One of the major initial applications of hypnotism was the
suppression of pain during medical procedures; this was supplanted
(in the late 19th century) by the development of more reliable
chemical anesthetics.
The use of hypnosis in dentistry has a long history. Dealing with
hypnodontia – the use of hypnosis in dentistry – has attested to the
increasing sophistication of hypnotic procedures to deal with the
special problems of the dental patient. Besides smoothing out dental
procedures by way of its generalized anti-anxiety effects, it can
increase overall patient comfort, make the dental experience
acceptable and bearable, decrease resistance to future intervention,
and through posthypnotic suggestions, encourage more rapid recovery.
Hypnodermatology
Hypnodermatology is the practice of treating
skin diseases with hypnosis.
Forensic application
Scientific knowledge of hypnosis applied to Legal problems is called
forensic hypnosis. Courts prior to 1968 consistently excluded
post-hypnotic testimony on the grounds that it was unreliable and
apt to influence a jury unduly. Now hypnosis practice is admissible
in courtroom testimonies as long as the stringent criteria and
guidelines are met. American Law Institute’s Model Penal Code
specifies Crime done by hypnotic Suggestion & Witness evidence in
court after Hypnotic suggestion are not valued. In the U.S., Oregon,
Texas, Indiana, Nevada, and California states have separate hypnotic
investigation acts. Nevada courts accept hypnotically refreshed
statements as evidence for judgment. Russia generally uses hypnosis
in criminal investigations.
Forensic hypnosis is not widely used in many legal systems due to
concerns about false memory
Entertainment/Stage
application
Template:original research
Professor G.F. Wagstaff, of the University of Liverpool, carried out
research around the phonemenon of stage hypnotism or hypnotism for
entertainment. He surmised that rather than the subject being in an
'altered state' rather they were affected significantly more by
social factors and expectations.
Wagstaff's work explores how a hypnotist carefully chooses
volunteers from the audience, puts them into a trance using hypnosis
and then plants suggestions for them to perform. The critical factor
in all stage hypnosis shows is the choice of enthusiastic and
credulous individuals. Various techniques exist for discerning
whether an individual is a likely candidate for a hypnosis stage act
showing a higher than normal susceptibility. Often, the sheer
willingness of audience members to volunteer is a sign that they
will cooperate with the hypnotist's suggestions during the show,
whether or not they ever really become hypnotized in the first
place.
For example, the volunteers may be made to believe they are drunk,
aliens speaking a strange alien language, naked or seeing others
naked, 6-year-old children, ballet dancers etc. Such suggestions are
designed to be temporary, lasting the duration of the show. Stage
hypnosis is a unique performance in that it involves "real" people
from the audience responding in a variety of ways, making no two
shows the same. There has been debate over the years as to whether
some degree of fraud or collusion may be involved in some stage
hypnosis acts.
Sometimes a stage hypnosis begins with an induction in which the
hypnotist asks the entire audience to close their eyes and listen to
his words. He lulls everyone participating into a relaxed state with
which he may observe who is more susceptible to be hypnotized. Often
people are simply unable to relax and "go with" the hypnotist's
instructions due to inability to relax and allow the mind to follow
instructions without conscious thought or simply determination to
not be induced.
There are many observations that can be made of those who do "go
under": slumping in their seat, head lolling to the side, falling
into the lap of someone next to them, eye lids flickering, and
inability to wake when spoken to or prodded unless done so by the
hypnotist himself. For those who are simply watching this show and
seeing the person next to them become induced, it can be frightening
to witness.
The people whom the hypnotist saw to be easily induced the deepest
are approached individually. He will speak briefly to the person and
learn their name at which time he may say a few words to them and
command them to sleep. For example: "Are you tired, Jane? Would you
like to sleep now? Go ahead - SLEEP." Normally this action will
cause the individual to immediately appear to have fallen asleep,
accompanied by the individual falling to the side. The hypnotist
will then speak once more to the person and in the same manner
command the person to wake. If this person seems to have been deeply
hypnotized but can also wake easily seems unaware of what happened,
he or she will be asked to go on the stage.
Once several people are assembled, the hypnotist will begin with
inducing each of them and testing them to make sure they are
perfectly under. If someone is not working well enough they may be
asked to leave. Those who remain are the ones who cannot be woken,
even by loud audiences and shouts. They only respond to the
hypnotist. He will begin with small commands for action and move up
to grand requests. For example, the subjects may first be told to
act as if they were cold in a relatively warm room, and by the end
of the night, they are showing the audience what their first kisses
were like.
Self-hypnosis
Autosuggestion
Self-hypnosis (or autosuggestion) hypnosis in which a person
hypnotizes himself or herself without the assistance of another
person to serve as the hypnotist — is a staple of
hypnotherapy-related self-help programs. It is most often used to
help the self-hypnotist stay on a diet, overcome smoking or some
other addiction, or to generally boost the hypnotized person's
self-esteem. It is rarely used for the more complex or controversial
uses of hypnotism, which require the hypnotist to monitor the
hypnotized person's reactions and responses and respond accordingly.
Most people who practice self-hypnosis require a focus in order to
become fully hypnotized; there are many computer programs on the
market that can ostensibly help in this area, though few, if any,
have been scientifically proven to aid self-hypnosis.
Some people use devices known as mind machines to help them go into
self-hypnosis more readily. A mind machine consists of glasses with
different colored flashing LEDs on the inside, and headphones. The
LEDs stimulate the visual channel while the headphones stimulate the
audio channel with similar or slightly different frequencies
designed to produce a certain mental state. A common occurrence is
the use of binaural beats in the audio which is said to produce
hypnosis more readily.
Mass application
Influencing the crowds of common longings and yearnings by a
demagogue is called mass hypnosis. Generally mass hypnosis is
applied to religious sessions. Many forms of music and dance can be
used to create religious trance.
Indirect application
In addition to direct application of hypnosis (that is, treatment of
conditions by means of hypnosis), there is also indirect
application, wherein hypnosis is used to facilitate another
procedure. Some people seem more able to display 'enhanced
functioning', such as the suppression of pain, while utilizing
hypnosis.
Possible Dangers of Hypnosis
Abreaction
Some psychologists and other mental health professionals are
concerned that practitioners of hypnosis who are unlicensed health
professionals might evoke intense emotions in their clients that
they are untrained to handle. These abreactions might occur when
spontaneously or purposefully recalling traumatic events or, some
believe, spontaneous mental breakdowns.
False Memory
False memory obtained via hypnosis has figured prominently in many
investigations and court cases, including cases of alleged sexual
abuse. There is no scientific way to prove that any of these
recollections are completely accurate.
Many individuals can and have been led by an errant hypnotist to
believe in things that they later were able to show did not happen
have retracted allegations of such abuse
(for instance, ).
The American Medical Association and the American Psychological
Association have both cautioned against the use of repressed memory
therapy in dealing with cases of alleged childhood trauma, stating
that "it is impossible, without other corroborative evidence, to
distinguish a true memory from a false one", and so the procedure is
"fraught with problems of potential misapplication". (See also false
memory).
Hypnosis and the Law
Governmental authorities and qualifications
Governmental authorities, such as state licensing agencies, may
establish minimum requirements for credentials that must be earned
before one may practice hypnosis within their jurisdiction. Such
credentials typically are called certificates or licenses.
In 1955, the British Medical Association, in 1958 the American
Medical Association and in 1960, the American Psychological
Association had approved the medical uses of hypnosis. Even though
they recognized the validity of hypnosis, medical schools and
universities largely ignored the subject. So the private sector
became the provider of hypnosis training. This lead to a very
interesting state of affairs; with so few physicians and dentists
being able to train others in hypnosis, the private hypnotherapy
school was born.
So there was no authentic degree or diploma in hypnosis issued in
either Great Britain, USA nor in any other country in the world.
There was no such thing as a qualified hypnotherapist. There were
only some training courses for qualified doctors, dentists and
clinical psychologists.
The World Health Organization has included hypnotherapy in
procedure-based therapies of traditional medicine with an emphasis
that hypnosis sits astride official and nonofficial
medicine.[Traditional medicine and health care coverage. (ISBN 92 4
154163 6), WHO Geneva, 1983]
Since the early 1990s two UK universities, Sheffield University and
University College London, have sanctioned degree programs in
hypnosis for medically, dentally, or psychologically qualified
hands.
1998 there was great change in UK. It was the development of
National Occupational Standards for hypnotherapy.UK recognized
hypnotherapy as a stand-alone therapy. There is a profession wide
program of trying to secure National Qualifications Framework for
hypnotherapy. City & guilds a national awarding body have been
employed to accredit training program in hypnotherapy and
counseling. In 2003 NCFE[34], a UK national awarding body, started
external accreditation for the Hypnotherapy Practitioner Diploma
courses supervised by the National Council for Hypnotherapy. They
have to study the psychology and psychotherapy relevant to their
subject. In their syllabus hypnotism is to psychology as surgery is
to medicine. As a surgeon must be expert in medicine, a
hypnotherapist must be in counseling psychology.
So there is an accredited qualification in UK, but the practice has
not been yet regulated.
Things are reverse in USA. The practice is regulated to certain
extent. But there is no an accredited qualification. There is an
explicit law in 16 states of US that regulates the practice of
hypnotism. They are California, Connecticut, Colorado, Florida,
Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Minnesota, New Jersey, New Hampshire, New
Mexico, North Carolina, Rhode Island, Utah, Washington and Nevada
(forensic hypnosis only). Connecticut, New York and Minnesota states
have changed their status in 2006 or are undergoing change in the
existing regulation.
But Hypnotherapy (hypnosis) is recognized as a legal stand-alone
profession by the US Department of Labor. It is listed in the
Dictionary of Occupational Titles (079.157.010). The US Department
of Education lists "Hypnotherapy-hypnotherapist" (9CIP 2000,
51.3603) under instructional programs. The Office of Administrative
Law Judges Law Library lists "Hypnotherapist" as a "legal
profession."
According to the Federal Dictionary of Occupational Titles published
by the United States Department of Labor under Hypnotherapist
079.157.010 it is defined as follows: "Induces hypnotic state in
client to increase motivation or alter behavior patterns: Consults
with client to determine nature of problem. Prepares client to enter
hypnotic state by explaining how hypnosis works and what client will
experience. Tests subject to determine degree of physical and
emotional suggestibility. Induces hypnotic state in client, using
individualized methods and techniques of hypnosis based on
interpretation of test results and analysis of client's problem. May
train client in self-hypnosis conditioning". GOE: 10.02.02 STRENGTH:
S GED: R4 M3 L4 SVP: 7 DLU: 7
In 2003, India also restricted the practice of hypnotherapy to
Registered Medical Practitioners of recognized systems and
appropriately trained personnel.
The Judiciary System
Recollection of knowledge via hypnosis has been used in many cases,
but its effectiveness is disputed. Proponents claim that recovered
memories have aided in the solving of many crimes, often
corroborating with physical evidence which would have been
impossible to obtain otherwise. Skeptics suggest that such successes
are a function of simple chance, pointing to cases where its use on
victims of rape or attempted murder to help them jog their memory in
identifying an accused has caused sentences to be doled out to the
wrong person. This is because the hypnotist might make suggestions
that are more likely to be remembered as "truth". (See also false
memory). Most experts recommend that the practice be used at most
like a lie detector, to glean more information, and never as the
smoking gun.
Hypnosis has proven beneficial, but not always in expected ways.
During the Hillside Strangler trial, Kenneth Bianchi claimed a split
personality carried out the crimes of which he was accused. Hypnosis
was used extensively to argue that a second personality existed.
However, due to faults in Bianchi's facade, it was proved that no
other personalities existed and his insanity defense was
discredited.
Popular
Culture
The notion of hypnotism has elicited many presentations in popular
culture. Intrinsically, the notion that people are susceptible to
commands outside their conscious control can be an effective way of
representing the notion of the fallible narrator.
Popular Misconceptions
Many works of fiction, such as movies, television programs, and
comic books portray hypnotism as a form of total mind control,
however most authorities agree that this is an exaggeration.
Portrayals in these forms of media foster a number of popular
misconceptions are often taken to be true by the public at large,
adding to the controversy surrounding hypnosis.
Control
Some believe that hypnotism is a form of mind control and/or
brainwashing that can control a person's behavior and judgment and
therefore could potentially cause them harm. These beliefs are not
generally based on scientific evidence, as there is no scientific
consensus on whether mind control even exists.
Hypnosis is caused by the hypnotist's power
Due to the stage hypnotist's showmanship and their perpetuated
illusion of possessing mysterious abilities, hypnosis is often seen
as caused by the hypnotist's power. The reality is the hypnotist has
no power other than to offer suggestions which the subject or client
may choose to respond to or not to respond to.
A person can become 'stuck' in hypnosis
The trance state is ultimately controlled by the client who may
choose to terminate the hypnotic process at will. While a subject
may want to enjoy the comfort of the trance state for as long as
possible, it is literally impossible to become stuck in hypnosis.
One is unconscious and unaware in hypnosis
While the word 'Hypnosis' is derived from the Greek word for 'sleep'
and many hypnotists still use the language of 'Sleep' and 'Awake',
hypnosis is not sleep. From the mental standpoint, a hypnotic
subject is relaxed yet alert and always aware at some level.
Weak-mindedness
Due to the popular but incorrect notion of hypnosis as mind control,
some people believe that the ability to experience hypnosis is
related to strength and soundness of mind. However scientists note
that personality traits such as gullibility or submissiveness or
factors such as low intelligence are not related to hypnotizability.
Research studies suggest neither intelligence, sex, nor personality
traits affect responsiveness to hypnosis and that hypnotizability
may in fact be hereditary or genetic in nature.
Overactive Imagination
Another misconception in popular culture is that hypnosis is often
the product of vivid imaginations and that hypnotic phenomena is
merely imagined in the mind. However, research indicates many
imaginative people do not fare well as good hypnotic subjects.
Furthermore, studies using PET scans have shown that hypnotized
subjects suggested to have auditory hallucinations demonstrated
regional blood flow in the same areas of the brain as real hearing,
whereas subjects merely imagining hearing noise did not.
Information Provided By: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypnosis
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